While I can't explain all of the symbols, I'll certainly explain what I understand.

Many people believe the design to be inspired by the Masonic tradition. For a more thorough explanation of certain obscure elements, please see the link below.

Some symbols as I understand them:

1) The year 1776 is shown in Roman numerals at the base of the pyramid.

2) The number 13, as representative of the original colonies, is repeated throughout:
a) In the eagle's talons, there are 13 arrows and an olive branch with 13 leaves.
b) The shield in front of the eagle has 13 vertical and 13 horizontal stripes.
c) There are 13 stars above the eagle's head.
d) The pyramid has 13 steps.
e) The Treasury seal on the front has a chevron with 13 stars.

3) The pyramid, as one of ancient geometric solids, is representative of fire, and symbolizes higher mind or spirit. The etymology of the word "pyramid" has the Greek "pyr" (fire) at its root, which is also the basis for the word "pure." "Passing through fire" is a process of purification. There is a great deal more to be said about the symbolism of the pyramid, than can be discussed in this answer. However, whether the founders intended to or not, many of the undiscussed qualities provide fitting symbols for the founding principles of a nation.

4) As with the Great Pyramid, the symbol on the dollar bill shows a pyramid without a capstone. I have long understood this to symbolize the unfinished nature of humanity. As can be seen in the picture, the creator, as symbolized by the all-seeing eye, completes the pyramid.

5) The "all-seeing" eye peers from a triangle, which is also the Greek symbol "delta". This symbol is an ancient representation of heaven's door. In fact, the Hebrew equivalent of delta is "daleth". "Dalath" or "da'ath" is said to mean "present elsewhere." From this we get the word "death." In the picture, the Creator is peering through heaven's door. The sun is the closest physical symbol that we have of this idea, and it's the basis for the mistaken notion that the ancients were sun worshippers.

6) Among other things, the eagle is symbolic of both eternal life and equilibrium. Manly P. Hall's "Secret Teachings of All Ages" discusses the double-headed eagle a the master of the "double Holy Empire of the superior and inferior universes." As a key symbol in Masonic ritual, the eagle is discussed in more depth in the link provided.

NOTE: Cybercyclone's answer depicts two opposite triangles, known more commonly as the Star of David or Solomon's Seal. Contrary to the discussion in the Freemasonry link, 666 was not originally intended as a negative symbol. To the ancients, the numeral six was the symbol for life. Consequently, the Sign of the Beast is simply the sign of creation and of sexual union, as in "the birds and the beasts" (not "the birds and the bees"). The interlocked triangles represent the union of Creator and created, of opposites, of man and woman, etc; and "As above, so below."

Certainly, my answer barely touches the deeper symbolism, which provides the basis for years of fascinating study. However, I hope that it does offer some deeper appreciation of some of the philosophy that the founders hoped to incorporate in our nation's founding.

Respectfully,
Shin
Source(s):
Freemasonry and the one-dollar bill
http://www.freemasonrywatch.org/onedollarbill.html

Also, a lifelong interest in symbolism and linguistics.

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